Pennsylvania German
A project funded by ESRC grant no R000 237820
Grant holder: Kersti Börjars
Project researcher: Sue Spence
The final report of the project
Aims of the Project
This project was undertaken with a number of aims in mind, some which could be completed within the life time of the ESRC funded project, and some long term goals for which the work specific to this project formed an important foundation.
Empirically, the aim was to transcribe previously collected data which was only available in the form of tape recordings, to make new recordings with native speakers at different intervals and to transcribe these recordings. The particular data of direct interest to this study relates to non-finite complementation and some of our recordings take the form of translation and elicitation exercises formulated with this construction in mind. However, we have also transcribed and recorded in the database both structured picture stories and free story telling. Since Pennsylvania German can be described as an endangered language, it is of long term interest that general data be recorded.
The historical aims of the project were to study the formal marking of non-finite clauses and the changes which have taken place to it over the time that we have studied the language. In order to get further historical depth, we have also used earlier texts and descriptions for data, but these are not always reliable and consistent. A draft manuscript for the historical descriptive aspects of our study will be available here soon.
Our aim was also to locate the specifics of the change attested in our data in the wider context of a typology of other similar changes that have occurred both within and outside the Germanic family. We reported on this work at the Workshop on infinitivals in Germanic held at the Annual Meeting of the German Linguistic Society in Marburg, March 2000. The handout from that workshop is available here in as a pdf file.
There were also theoretical aims to our study. We wanted to investigate the theoretical implications of the properties of different types of non-finite clauses with fer in Pennsylvania German, particularly with respect to the functional categories associated with the clause and to consider how these categories and the changes that have taken place can be modelled within a restrictive theoretical framework. Please click to see the outline of our conclusions from the End of Grant Report.
The Pennsylvania German Language
The variety of Pennsylvania German (PG) which we study is spoken in Waterloo County, Canada. This is an area southwest of Toronto, in particular, south of Kitchener/Waterloo. However, the language is also spoken in other parts of Canada and in many areas in the US.
Hutterite German is another variety descended from German which is spoken by religious groups in mainly Western Canada. This variety is sufficiently close to PG for there to be some mutual intelligibility. There are also Mennonites in Canada who speak a descendant of Low German referred to as Plautdietsch. Varieties of this language are also spoken in the US, South America and in Kazakhstan and Siberia ( Neufeld 2000, Nieuweboer 2000). The exact relations between these varieties is not always clear.
Pennsylvania German is a descendent of the variety of German which was spoken by the people who emigrated from Europe to the United States from the 17th century onwards. The people we record came to the the US from Germany, but there are also Pennsylvania German speakers in Canada who arrived at a later stage via Russia. The estimated number of speakers on the American continent is about 2-300 000 ( van Ness 1994). In Canada, there are roughly 15 000 PG speakers and most of these live in Waterloo County ( http://www.sil.org).
The Plain PG speakers themselves themselves think of it as an (inferior) dialect of German, but for many reasons it is now more appropriate to refer to it as a language. The Waterloo County Pennsylvania German shows only minor differences from the variety spoken in Pennsylvania, USA. The name the native speakers in Waterloo County use for their language is "Daetsch", in parts of the US, the name "Pennsylvansch" is more often used.
The language as it is has grown out of a blend of the many different dialects which came into Pennsylvania during the first wave of immigration during the 17th century. These dialects came from the Palatinate and surrounding areas; Bavaria, Hessen, Swabia and Würtemberg. The result is a dialect which most closely resembles the modern dialect of the eastern Palatinate, but there is only very low level of mutual intelligibility.
The Community and its History
The variety of Pennsylvania German (PG) that we study is spoken in Waterloo County, Canada. This is an area southwest of Toronto, in particular, south of Kitchener/Waterloo.
The speakers are descendants of people who emigrated from Europe to the United States during the 17th century in order to escape religious intolerance. Originally, these people settled in the US, in Pennsylvania in particular, but for a number of reasons, life became difficult there for them during the War of Independence and large groups moved north into Canada. Some of the PG speaking Mennonites in Canada came at a later stage, via Russia, but we do not have contacts with anyone from this community.
We have worked exclusively with so-called Plain Mennonites, i.e. Mennonites who are still close to the original traditions. For our purposes, they can be divided into three groups; Old Order Mennonites, Markham Mennonites and Dave Martin Mennonites. The Old Orders and the Markhams are the two biggest groups. Even though they are both "Plain", the Markham Mennonites can be seen as less conservative since they for insatance permit cars (though only black ones).
Linguistically, one striking difference is that Markhams have parts of their church service performed in English, whereas in an Old Order service, the language is Pennsylvania German apart from the Bible reading, which is in High German. The Dave Martins form a closed community with little interaction with the outside world. Even though there is much interaction between Markhams and Old Orders, Dave Martins interact minimally with other Plain Mennonites.
We have recordings of Old Order and Markham Mennonites and one recording of a member of the Dave Martins. According to the speakers, there is little difference between the Old Orders and the Markhams. We have not been able to define any variation that follows this group divison, except possibly a higher use of words borrowed from English amongst the younger Markhams, but we have not performed any systematic study of the use of borrowed words. The language of the Dave Martins does, however, show some characteristic properties.
All the speakers we have recorded are bilingual in English and Pennsylvania German. Only one speaker is knowledgeable about Standard German. All these speakers would have been monolingual in Pennsylvania German until school age (6-7 years of age), but English is the language used in schools even though these two groups have their own (joint) schools.
At school, children would also be taught some very basic Standard German since the bible is read in a Lutheran translation. This is, however, a question of learning a few words and also Standard German pronounciation. The Dave Martins send their children to state schools, so that they alos have their schooling in English.
The community does not have television or radio, something which reduces the amount of English input, especially for the younger generation, compared to other minority language groups in North America. Social interaction between Plain Mennonites is entirely done in Pennsylvania German.
A Bibliography of Pennsylvania German
A bibliography of books and articles on Pennsylvania GermanCompiled as part of the project 'Modelling syntactic change: a case study in Pennsylvania German' funded by the ESRC grant no R000 237820.
For some entries, we do not have full details and some of the entries amy be difficult to get hold of even with the full details. Still we have included them here to give some idea of what has been written on the topic.
If you know of a publication on PG which is not listed here, or if you have some of the details which are missing here, we would be grateful if you would let us know: k.borjars@manchester.ac.uk
Publications -A to D
Adams, M. 2000. Lexical Doppelgangers. Journal of English Linguistics 28(3): 295-310.
Bausch, K.-H. (1997, ). "In other words-was gschwind in English ded's mena?" Beobachtungen zum Pennsylvaniadeutsch heute. Sprachreport, 4, 1-6.
Benjamin, S. 0000a. A bibliography of works published in the Yearbooks of the Pennsylvania German Folklore Society. Morgantown: Department of Foreign Languages.
Benjamin, S. 0000b. Select bibliography on the Pennsylvania German dialect. Morgantown: Department of Foreign Languages.
Brumbaugh, T.B. 1972. A Pennsylvania-German diary (1847-1868). Journal of German American Studies 10: 2-11.
Buehler, A.M. 1977. The Pennsylvania German dialect and the life of an Old Order Mennonite. Cambridge, Ontario: Privately printed.
Buffington, A.F. 1968. The influence of the Pennsylvania German dialect on the English spoken in the Pennsylvania German area. In S.Z. Buehne, J.L. Hodge & L.B. Pinto (Eds.), Helen Adolf Festschrift . New York: Ungar. 30-41.
Buffington, A.F. 1980. Lack hazhafdich: a collection of 'earthy' Pennsylvania German 'schtories'. In ??? (Ed.), Ebbes fer alle - ebber ebbes fer dich: Essays in Memoriam, Albert Franklin Buffington . Breinigsville: Pennsylvania German Society. 37-59.
Buffington, A.F. & P.A. Barba. 1965. A Pennsylvania German grammar. Allentown, Pa: Schlechters.
Burridge, K. 1989. A localized study of P.G. dialect in Waterloo County, Ontario: The Pennsylvania German Folklore Society.
Burridge, K. 1992. Creating grammar: examples from Pennsylvania German, Ontario. In K. Burridge & W. Enninger (Eds.), Diachronic studies on the languages of the Anabaptists . Bochum: Brockmeyer. 199-241.
Burridge, K. 1995. Evidence of grammaticalization in Pennsylvania German. In H. Andersen (Ed.), Historical Linguistics 1993 Amsterdam: Benjamins. 59-75.
Burridge, K. 1997. On the trail of the Conestoga modal: recent movements of modal auxiliaries in Pennsylvania German. In J.R. Dow & M. Wolff (Eds.), Languages and lives. Essays in honor of Werner Enninger . New York: Peter Lang. 7-28.
Burridge, K. 1998a. From Modal Auxiliary to Lexical Verb: The Curious Case of Pennsylvania German Wotte. In R. Hogg & L. van Bergen (Eds.), Historical Linguistics 1995. Vol II: Germanic Linguistics . Amsterdam: Benjamins. 19-33.
Burridge, K. 1998b. Throw the baby from the window a cookie: English and Pennsylvania German in contact. In A. Siewierska & J.J. Song (Eds.), Case, typology and grammar: in honor of Barry J. Blake . Amsterdam: Benjamins. 71-93.
Burridge, K. & W. Enninger (Eds.). 1992. Diachronic studies on the languages of the Anabaptists. Bochum: Brockmeyer.
Coley, R.E., M. Markoff & S. Miller. 0000. A select bibliography of Pennsylvania German dialect materials in the Ganser Library, Millersville State College. In S.M. Benjamin (Ed.), Papers from the Conference on German-Americana in the Eastern United States . Morgantown: Dept of Foreign Languages, West Virginia Univiersity. 78-81.
Costello, J.R. 0000. Pennsylvania German, Standard German, and the reconstruction of meaning. In S.M. Benjamin (Ed.), Papers from the Conference on German-Americana in the Eastern United States . Morgantown: Dept of Foreign Languages, West Virginia Univiersity. 131-42.
Costello, J.R. 1974a. Choosing an orthography for a patois language, or: how should one spell Pennsylvania German? Historic Schaefferstown Record 8: 42-8.
Costello, J.R. 1974b. A glottochronological study of Pennsylvania German. 8: 2-13.
Costello, J.R. 1978. Syntactic change and second language acquisition: the case for Pennsylvania German. Linguistics 213: 29-50.
Costello, J.R. 1979. A lexical comparison of two sister languages: Pennsylvania German and Yiddish. Pennsylvania Folklife 29: 138-42.
Costello, J.R. 1983. Pennsylvania German brauche 'to charm' and Hebrew berakhah 'benediction': a new etymology. Pennsylvania Folklife 32(3): 123-7.
Costello, J.R. 1989. Innovations increasing syntactic complexity in the native language of bilingual children from 5 to 10: the case for Pennsylvania. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik 64(Supp): 3-16.
Costello, J.R. 1992. The periphrastic duh construction in Anabaptist and Nonsectarian Pennsylvania German: synchronic and diachronic perspectives. In K. Burridge & W. Enninger (Eds.), Diachronic studies on the languages of the Anabaptists Bochum: Brockmeyer. 242-63.
Costello, J.R. 1997. Remarks on linguistic convergence, lexical syncretism, and cognition: the merger of bitte and fraage in the Pennsylvania German of Anabaptists in Lancaster County. In J.R. Dow & M. Wolff (Eds.), Languages and lives. essays in honor of Werner Enninger . New York: Peter Lang. 29-38.
Dorian, N. 1989. The nature and scope of changes in the Pennsylvania German of two multi-generational kin networks: the noun phrase. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik 64(Supp): 41-70.
Dorian, N.C. 1997. Males and merger: dative third-person pronouns among secular Berks County Pennsylvania German speakers. In J.R. Dow & M. Wolff (Eds.), Languages and lives. essays in honor of Werner Enninger . New York: Peter Lang. 39-52.
Dow, J.R. 1988. Toward an understanding of some subtle stresses on language maintenance among the Old Order Amish of Iowa. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 69: 19-31.
Publications E-F
Enninger, W. 1985. Pennsylvania German: a pidgin(ized) variety? In N. Boretzk, W. Enninger & T. Stolz (Eds.), Akten des 2. Essener Kolloquiums uber "Kreolsprachen und Sprachkontakte" (pp. 41-82). Bochum: Brockmeyer. 41-82.
Enninger, W. 1987. Notes on the receding contact-influences of (Pennsylvania-)German on English. In N. Boretzky, W. Enninger & T. Stolz (Eds.), Beiträge zum 3. Essener Kolloquium über Sprachwandel und seine bestimmenden Faktore (pp. 99-125). Bochum: Brockmeyer. 99-125.
Enninger, W., J. Raith & K.H. Wandt. 1989. Studies on the languages and the verbal behavior of the Pennsylvania Germans, II. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 64(Supp), 00-.
Ferre, C.B.M. 1991. Stability and change in the Pennsylvania German dialect of an Old Order Amish community in Lancaster County . Unpublished PhD, University of Georgia.
Fretz, J.W. 1992. The Pennsylvania German dialect in Southern Ontario, Canada. In K. Burridge & W. Enninger (Eds.), Diachronic studies on the languages of the Anabaptists (pp. 43-63). Bochum: Brockmeyer. 43-63.
Frey, J.W. 1981. A simple grammar of Pennsylvania Dutch. Lancaster, Pa: John Baers and Son.
Fuller, J.M. 1996. When cultural maintenance means linguistic convergence: Pennsylvania German evidence for the Matrix Language Turnover Hypothesis. Language in Society, 25(4), 493-514.
Fuller, J.M. 1997. 'Pennsylvania Dutch with a Southern touch': a theoretical model of language contact and change . Unpublished PhD, University of South Carolina.
Fuller, J.M. 1999. The role of English in Pennsylvania German development: best supporting actress? American Speech, 74(1), 38-55.
Fuller, J.M. 2000. Morpheme types in a Matrix Language Turnover: the introduction of system morphemes from English into Pennsylvania German. International Journal of Bilingualism, 4(1), 45-58.
Publications H
Haag, E.C. 1982. A Pennsylvania German reader and grammar. Schuylkill Haven, Pa: Keystone Books, The Pennsylvania State University Press.
Halderman, S.S. 1872. Pennsylvania Dutch: a dialect of South German with an infusion of English. London: Trübner.
Horne, A.R. 1905. Horne's Pennsylvania German manual. Allentown, Pa: T.K. Horne Publisher.
Hosch, H.L. 0000. Pennsylvania Dutch or Pennsylvania German? A historical assessment. In S.M. Benjamin (Ed.), Papers from the Conference on German-Americana in the Eastern United States (pp. 117-23). Morgantown: Dept of Foreign Languages, West Virginia Univiersity. 117-23.
Huffines, M.L. 1980a. English in contact with Pennsylvania German. German Quarterly, 53, 352-66.
Huffines, M.L. 1980b. English in contact with Pennsylvania German. German Quarterly, 54, 352-66.
Huffines, M.L. 1980c. Pennsylvania German: maintenance and shift. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 25, 43-57.
Huffines, M.L. 1984. Pennsylvania German stereotype: particles, prepositions, and adverbs. Yearbook of German-American Studies, 19, 23-32.
Huffines, M.L. 1986a. The function of aspect in Pennsylvania German and the impact of English. Yearbook of German-American Studies, 21, 137-54.
Huffines, M.L. 1986b. Strategies for language maintenance and ethnic marking among Pennsylvania Germans. Language Sciences, 8, 1-16.
Huffines, M.L. 1986c. Verbal aspect in Pennsylvania German: the progressive among sectarians and nonsectarians. In W. Enninger, J. Raith & K.-H. Wandt (Eds.), Internal and external perspectives on Amish and Mennonite life, II (pp. 1-17). Essen: Unipress. 1-17.
Huffines, M.L. 1987. The dative case in Pennsylvania german: diverging norms in language maintenance and loss. Yearbook of German-American Studies, 22, 173-81.
Huffines, M.L. 1988a. Building progressives: evidence from cognate structures. Journal of English Linguistics, 21(2), 137-48.
Huffines, M.L. 1988b. Case merger and case loss in Pennsylvania German. In F.G. Gentry (Ed.), Semper Idem et Novus. Festschrift for Frank Banta (pp. 391-402). Göppingen: Kummerle. 391-402.
Huffines, M.L. 1988c. Lexical borrowing and linguistic convergence in Pennsylvania German. Yearbook of German-American Studies, 23, 59-71.
Huffines, M.L. 1988d. Pennsylvania German among the plain groups : convergence as a strategy of language maintenance [bibliog]. Brethren life and thought, 33, 242-9.
Huffines, M.L. 1989a. Case usage among the Pennsylvania German sectarians and nonsectarians. In N.C. Dorian (Ed.), Investigating obsolescence: studies in language contraction and death (pp. 211-26). Cambridge: CUP. 211-26.
Huffines, M.L. 1989b. Convergence and language death: the case of Pennsylvania German. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 64(Supp), 17-28.
Huffines, M.L. 1989c. Pennsylvania German: convergence and change as strategies of discourse. In H.W. Seliger & R.M. Vago (Eds.), First language attrition (pp. 125-37). Cambridge: CUP. 125-37.
Huffines, M.L. 1990a. Contact phenomena in language maintenance and shift: the Pennsylvania German infinitive construction. American Journal of Germanic Linguistics and Literatures, 2(3), 95-108.
Huffines, M.L. 1990b. Pennsylvania German in public life. Pennsylvania Folklife, 39(3), 117-25.
Huffines, M.L. 1991b. Acquisition strategies in language death. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13(1), 43-55.
Huffines, M.L. 1991a. Acquisition strategies in language death (pp. 43-55). Cambridge: CUP. 43-55.
Huffines, M.L. 1991c. Pennsylvania German: 'Do they love it in their hearts?'. In J.R. Dow (Ed.), Language and ethnicity: Focusschrift in honor of Joshua A. Fishman on the occasion of his 65th birthday, II (pp. 9-22). Amsterdam: Benjamins. 9-22.
Huffines, M.L. 1991d. Pennsylvania German: convergence and change as strategies of discourse. In H.W. Seliger & R.M. Vago (Eds.), First language attrition (pp. 125-37). Cambridge: CUP. 125-37.
Huffines, M.L. 1991e. Translation: a vehicle for change? Evidence from Pennsylvania German. American Journal of Germanic Linguistics and Literatures, 3(2), 175-93.
Huffines, M.L. 1992. Language change and enabling strategies of Pennsylvania Anabaptists. In K. Burridge & W. Enninger (Eds.), Diachronic studies on the languages of the Anabaptists (pp. 166-81). Bochum: Brockmeyer. 166-81.
Huffines, M.L. 1994a. Amish languages. In J.R. Dow, W. Enninger & J. Raith (Eds.), Old and New World Anabaptists; studies on the language, culture, society and health of the Amish and Mennonites (pp. 21-32). Essen: Department of English, University of Essen. 21-32.
Huffines, M.L. 1994b. Directionality of language influence: the case of Pennsylvania German and English. In N. Berend & K.J. Mattheier (Eds.), Sprachinselforschung: Eine Gedenkschrift für Hugo Jedig (pp. 47-58). Frankfurt: Peter Lang. 47-58.
Huffines, M.L. 1997. Language contact and the Amish. In J.R. Dow & M. Wolff (Eds.), Languages and lives. Essays in honor of Werner Enninger (pp. 53-66). New York: Peter lang. 53-66.
Publications J-M
Johnson-Weiner, K.M. 1989. Keeping Dutch: linguistic heterogeneity and the maintenance of Pennsylvania German in two Old Order Amish communities. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 64(Supp), 95-101.
Johnson-Weiner, K.M. 1992. Group identity and language maintenance: the survival of Pennsylvania German in Old Order communities. In K. Burridge & W. Enninger (Eds.), Diachronic studies on the languages of the Anabaptists (pp. 26-42). Bochum: Brockmeyer. 26-42.
Kehr, K. 1988. Lebenszeichen für morgen - Bemerkungen zur gegenwartigen pennsylvaniendeutschen Dialektliteratur. Jahrbuch für Internationale Germanistik, 20(1), 126-36.
Keiser, S.H. 1999. Plain difference: variation in case-marking in a Pennsylvania German speaking community. Ohio State University Working Papers in Linguistics, 52, 249-88.
Kelz, H. 1971. Phonologische Analyse des Pennsylvaniadeutschen Hamburg: Buske
Kloss, H. 1989. Sociolinguistic parallels between the Mennonite speakers of Pennsylvania German (or Pennsylfaanisch) and of Plautdietsch. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 64(Supp), 117-24.
Kopp, A. 1997. Die Phonologie des Englischen der Pennsylvaniadeutschen als Indikator für Spracherhalt und Sprachverlagerung. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 64(1), 1-36.
Kunselman, A. (1985, ). Eighteenth century emigrants from German-speaking lands to North America, II: The Western Palatinate.
Lambert, M.B. 1977. Pennsylvania-German dictionary. Exton PA: Schiffer.
Learned, M.D. 1988/9. The Pennsylvania German dialect. In American Journal of Philology 9, 1988: 64-83, 178-97, 326-39, 425-45; 10, 1989: 288-315.
Louden, M. 1990. Verb raising and the position of the finite verb in Pennsylvania German. Linguistics Inquiry, 21(3), 470-7.
Louden, M.L. 1987. Bilingualism and diglossia: the case of Pennsylvania German. Leuvense Bijdragen: contributions in linguistics and philology, 76(1), 17-36.
Louden, M.L. 1989a. Biligualism and syntactic change in Pennsylvania German . Unpublished Dissertation, Cornell University.
Louden, M.L. 1989b. Pennsylvania German in West Virginia: language variation and language attrition . Unpublished PhD, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor MI.
Louden, M.L. 1989c. Syntactic variation and change in Pennsylvania German. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 64(Supp), 29-40.
Louden, M.L. 1992a. German as an object-verb language: a unification of typological and generative approaches. In I. Rauch, G.F. Carr & R.L. Kyes (Eds.), On Germanic linguistics: issues and methods (pp. 000-). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 000-.
Louden, M.L. 1992b. Language contact and the relationship of form and meaning in English and German. In R. Lippi-Green (Ed.), Recent developments in Germanic linguistics (pp. 115-25). Amsterdam: Benjamins. 115-25.
Louden, M.L. 1992c. Old Order Amish verbal behavior as a reflection of cultural convergence. In K. Burridge & W. Enninger (Eds.), Diachronic studies on the languages of the Anabaptists (pp. 264-78). Bochum: Brockmeyer. 264-78.
Louden, M.L. 1993a. Variation in Pennsylvania German syntax: a diachronic perspective. In W. Viereck (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Congress of Dialectologists (Verhandlungen des Internat. Dialektologenkongresses) (Vol. 2, pp. 169-79). Stuttgart: Steiner. 169-79.
Louden, M.L. 1993b. Variation in Pennsylvania German syntax: a diachronic perspective. Paper presented at the International Congress of Dialectologists Vol II Historical dialectology and linguistic change, Bamberg, .
Louden, M.L. 1994. Syntactic change in multilingual speech islands. In N. Berend & K.J. Mattheier (Eds.), Sprachinselforschung: Eine Gedenkschrift für Hugo Jedig (pp. 73-91). Frankfurt: Peter Lang. 73-91.
Louden, M.L. 1997. Linguistic structure and sociolinguistic identity in Pennsylvania German society. In J.R. Dow & M. Wolff (Eds.), Languages and lives. essays in honor of Werner Enninger (pp. 79-91). New York: Peter Lang. 79-91.
McCulloh, M. 1996. Stability and change in the Pennsylvania German dialect of an old order Amish community in Lancaster County (book review). The German Quarterly, 69, 345-6.
Moelleken, W.W. 1983. Language maintenance and language shift in Pennsylvania German: a comparative investigation. Monatshefte für Deutschen Unterricht, Deutsche Sprache und Literatur, 75(2), 172-86.
Moelleken, W.W. 1988. New linguistic atlas of Pennsylvania German. Monatshefte für Deutschen Unterricht, Deutsche Sprache und Literatur, 80(1), 105-14.
Moelleken, W.W. & W.H. Veith. 1989. Ein neuer Sprachatlas des Pennsylvania-Deutschen. In W.H. Veith & W. Putschke (Eds.), Sprachatlanten des Deutschen: Laufende Projekte (pp. 399-413). Tübingen: Niemeyer. 399-413.
Publications N-Z
Neufeld, Eldo 2000. Plautdietsch grammar. An aid to speaking, reading, and writing Netherlandic-Mennonite Plautdietsch. München: Lincom Europa.
Neufeld, Eldo 2001. Plautdietsch verb conjugation. München: Lincom Europa.
Nieuwenboer, Rogier 2000. The Altai dialect of Plautdiitsch: West-Siberian Mennonite Low German. München: Lincom Europa.
Post, R. 1989. The lexicography of Palatinate German: its relevance for Pennsylvania German research. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 64(Supp), 71-9.
Raith, J. 1992. Dialect mixing and/or code convergence: Pennsylvania German? In K. Burridge & W. Enninger (Eds.), Diachronic studies on the languages of the Anabaptists (pp. 152-65). Bochum: Brockmeyer. 152-65.
Raith, J. 1994. Is Pennsylvania German still a Palatinate-based dialect of German? In J.R. Dow, W. Enninger & J. Raith (Eds.), Old and New World Anabaptists; studies on the language, culture, society and health of the Amish and Mennonites (pp. 33-49). Essen: Department of English, University of Essen. 33-49.
Raith, J. , et al. 1977. Pennsylvania German-American English bilingualism: a case study. In C. Molony, H. Zohl & W. Stolting (Eds.), Deutsch im Kontact mit anderen Sprachen (pp. 104-28). Kronberg. 104-28.
Reed, C.E. 1948. The adaption of English to Pennsylvania German morphology. American Speech, 23, 239-44.
Reed, C.E. 1967. Loan-word stratification in Pennsylvania German. German Quarterly, 40, 83-6.
Reed, C.E. 1972. A phonological history of Pennsylvania German. In E.S. Firchow, K. Grimstad, N. Hasselmo & W.A. O'Neil (Eds.), Studies for Einar Haugen presented by friends and colleagues (pp. 469-81). The Hague: Mouton. 469-81.
Reed, C.E. 1979. The syntax of Pennsylvania German. Orbis, 28(2), 242-56.
Reed, C.E. and Seifert L.W. 1954. A linguistic atlas of Pennsylvania GermanMarburg/Lahn: Elwert.
Richardson, B. 1993. Transactions of a nineteenth-century Pennsylvania-German minister with his community: the 1828-1861 ledger of Isaac Faust Stiehly (1800-1869). The Folklore Historian, 10, 75-98.
Richter, M.M. 1971. The phonemic system of the Pennsylvania German dialect in Waterloo County . Unpublished PhD
Schah, P. 1951. Semantic borrowing in Pennsylvania German. American Speech 26:257-67
Seel, H. 1988. Lexikologische Studien zum Pennsylvaniadeutschen: Wortbildung des Pennsylvaniadeutschen; Sprachkontakterscheinungen im Wortschatz des Pennsylvaniadeutschen. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 61(Supp), 00-.
Seifert, L.W.J. 1947. The dimunitives of Pennsylvania German. Monatshefte39: 285-93.
Seifert, L.W. 1967. A contrastive description of Pennsylvania German and Standard German stops and fricatives. In I. Rauch & C.T. Scott (Eds.), Approaches in linguistic methodology (pp. 81-8). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 81-8.
Seifert, L.W.J. 1971. The word geography of Pennsylvania German: extent and causes. In G.G. Gilbert (Ed.), The German language in America: a symposium (pp. 14-42). Austin TE: University of Texas. 14-42.
van Ness, S. 1985. The pressure of English on the Pennsylvania German spoken in two West Virginia communities. American Speech, 67(1), 71-82.
van Ness, S. 1989. Pennsylvania German in West Virginia: language variation and language attrition . Unpublished PhD, ???, ???
van Ness, S. 1992a. The New Order Amish in Ohio: A grammatical change in progress. In K. Burridge & W. Enninger (Eds.), Diachronic studies on the languages of the Anabaptists (pp. 182-98). Bochum: Brockmeyer. 182-98.
van Ness, S. 1992b. The pressure of English on the Pennsylvania German spoken in two West Virginia communities. American Speech 67, 71-82.
van Ness, S. 1993. Advances toward a new pronominal grammar in an Ohio Amish community. Word, 44(2), 193-204.
van Ness, S. 1994a. Die Dimensionen lexikalischer Entlehnungen im Pennsylvaniendeutschen von Ohio (USA). Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 61(3), 279-97.
van Ness, S. 1994b. Pennsylvania German. In E. König & J. van der Auwera (Eds.), The Germanic languages (pp. 420-38). London: Routledge. 420-38.
van Ness, S. 1995a. Ohio Amish women in the vanguard of a language change: Pennsylvania German in Ohio. American Speech, 70(1), 69-80.
van Ness, S. 1995b. Stability and change in the Pennsylvania German dialect of an old order Amish community in Lancaster County (book review). American Speech, 70, 401-14.
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