Middle Eastern Languages
See below for descriptions of the Middle Eastern langauges of:
Arabic
Arabic is a language of major international importance. It is the language of nineteen Arab countries, stretching from Morocco on the Atlantic coast in the west to Iraq in the east, from Syria in the north to the Sudan in Africa in the south. It is also the language of the Quran, the holy book of Islam, and thus the medium of worship of over 700 million Muslims throughout the world. The political and economic importance of the Arab world cannot be overemphasized.
Arabic belongs to the Semitic family of languages. Its earliest known literature dates from the 6th century AD and the literary output of the Arabs over the centuries to the present day has been considerable. Poetry has always been a favourite medium of the Arabs, but many genres are well represented: religious works, belles-lettres, history, geography and travel literature etc., and in modern times novels, short stories and drama. The course in Manchester tries to give you a taste of the most important examples of this vast literature.
You should note that with Arabic you will encounter a problem which will not arise with the other Middle Eastern languages. The Arabic language used in literature and the press is considerably different from the numerous varieties of Arabic which are spoken throughout the Arab World. You must not expect to make rapid progress in colloquial Arabic, therefore, which can only be introduced to you effectively at a later stage and at a slower pace than that of the other languages.
You will begin a study of the language with the alphabet and your first year will be taken up mastering the basics of what is known as Modern Standard Arabic, the language of modern literature and the press. Later you will read representative literature in various forms written over the centuries. You will study also the essential historical background and learn something of Islam as a religion. You will find Arabic "different" and a linguistic challenge and it must be stressed that the major aim here is that you achieve a high standard in the written language.
If your interest is more in Arab and Islamic culture you should think of combining your Arabic with either Persian or Turkish, both in themselves major Islamic languages. You may, however, find that you are more interested in the language itself; in this case you should think of Hebrew or Syriac as a second language, for both are also Semitic and will give you an even deeper insight into how these languages work.
Aramaic and Syriac
Aramaic has been in use throughout the Middle East for almost three thousand years, from the 10th century B.C.E. up to the present. It was the major language of the Middle East until it was replaced by Arabic.
Aramaic has been spoken and written by many different communities in many different countries - from Egypt to Pakistan. It was the native tongue of Jesus Christ, and was widely spoken by Jewish as well as pagan communities in the Middle East. The form of Aramaic that is called Syriac was extensively used by the Christian communities. Today a form of Syriac is still spoken by the Christian communities which live in Syria, Iraq and Turkey.
Aramaic and Syriac literature is very varied: inscriptions, papyri and manuscripts cover all aspects of daily life - from devotional prayers to the bill of sale for a female slave! The Jewish communities wrote many works in Aramaic, including parts of the Old Testament (in the books of Daniel and Ezra). The Christian communities also wrote many works in Syriac and are still continuing to do so even today.
Studies begin with students in their first year learning basic grammar and reading simple texts. In the second and third year, courses highlight the rich historical span of Aramaic and Syriac - ranging from `Old Aramaic Inscriptions and Papyri¿ from the first millennium B.C.E. to `Syriac Historical Texts¿ that comment on Islamic culture in the medieval period.
Aramaic and Syriac can be studied together with other language options that are offered by Middle Eastern Studies:
- Arabic: for anyone interested in Arabic and Islamic History, a combination with Aramaic and Syriac is most rewarding.
- Hebrew: for anyone interested in the Old Testament and Jewish Studies, a combination with Aramaic and Syriac is vital.
For general reading, the following can be recommended:
- Aziz, A. A History of Eastern Christianity (London: 1968).
- Rosenthal, F. 'Aramaic Literature' in Encyclopedia of Literature, 1:48-56 (New York: The Philosophical Library).
Hebrew
Hebrew holds an important historical place among the languages of the Middle East because it was the Middle Eastern language which western scholars first learned and studied. It also provided them with the key to the Semitic family of languages.
Hebrew has a continuous and well-documented history stretching back at least 3,000 years. It is the original language of the Old Testament (the Hebrew Bible) and it boasts an extensive post-Biblical and medieval literature, which is largely religious in character. In the 18th and 19th centuries Hebrew was revived and was used more and more for secular purposes, and in the 20th it became the official language of the State of Israel. Since the establishment of Israel in 1948 there has been a spectacular flowering of Hebrew literature of all kinds and genres - novels, plays, poetry, essays, history, biography, academic and scientific texts. Much of this writing is of a high order, and a large amount of it is translated into European languages.
In your first year you will study modern Hebrew. Thereafter you will be introduced to the earlier phases of the language and literature. Over the whole course you will be able either to stress ancient Hebrew or modern Hebrew, or to mix course-options from all periods as you see fit.
Israel is a small country where English is widely used and understood, so Hebrew, in contrast to Arabic, Turkish and Persian, is of little obvious commercial use. Its importance is defined in historical and cultural terms. If you want to acquire a thorough understanding of contemporary Middle Eastern history or politics, then you should seriously consider Hebrew as an option. Israel, despite its size, is an important actor on the Middle Eastern stage, and to get a rounded view of the Middle Eastern scene it will be helpful if you can read, for example, the Hebrew language press. If you can also read the Arabic language press, so much the better.
Hebrew is also a sensible option if you are an antiquarian at heart, with an interest in the ancient Near East. Antiquarians should seriously consider combining Hebrew with either Aramaic/Syriac, or with Akkadian.
If you do not already know any Hebrew it is worth while having a look at a grammar. You may find one in your public library, probably a grammar of Biblical Hebrew. This will be adequate to give you the alphabet and the broad structure of the language. For more general reading two readily available books can be recommended:
- Roth, A Short History of the Jewish People ,1969.
- T. Carmi, The Penguin Book of Hebrew Verse, 1981.
Persian
Persian (or Farsi) is a member of the large family of Indo-European languages. Besides Iran, Persian is also spoken in Afghanistan (where it is called Dari) as well as in Tajikistan (where it is known as Tajiki). Since its emergence roughly a thousand years ago, about two hundred years after the Muslim conquest of the Sasanian Iranian Empire, 'New' Persian grew to become the main literary language in the eastern part of the Islamic Caliphate. Persian was used far beyond the borders of today's Iran and has been prized for its immensely rich classical literature, especially in poetry.
Today's Persian speakers still cherish their literary heritage, especially the mystical poetry of great masters such as Sa'di, Rumi and Hafez. Following the Mongol invasion of the 13th century, Persian became the language of high culture and belles-lettres throughout the non-Arab Islamic world, influencing Ottoman Turkish court literature in the West and Urdu poetry in the East. Persian was also the language of government and administration in much of Central Asia and most of India until the 19th century.
The Persian language taught and studied at Manchester University is the Persian of modern Iran. In Ancient and Medieval times, there was no state whose borders corresponded to those of contemporary Iran. The territory that comprises Iran today was either a part of larger empires, or was divided among smaller states and principalities.
Over the centuries, the Persian-speaking world was at the centre of the cultural and commercial currents of the Old World, and from about the 16th century there were growing contacts with European travellers and merchants. The borders of today's Iran began to be formed in the Safavid period, when the Shi'i branch of Islam became the state religion.
From the 19th century Iran began to be integrated into the political and economic systems of the modern world and, as a result, became a focus of great power competition. This process was consolidated in the twentieth century, when the discovery of abundant oil reserves further enhanced Iran's strategic value. During the 20th century Iranian governments and society grappled with the issues of modernization and reform, state and nation-building, and responding to the challenge of Western culture.
The Islamic Revolution of 1978-79 once again placed Iran at the centre stage of regional as well as global politics. The Islamic Republic of Iran experienced two decades of political, economic and cultural isolation, but from the later 1990s began again to be in closer contact with regional neighbours and the wider international community. Today there are good opportunities for travel and study in Iran, and the country is beginning to open up to foreign businesses and organizations.
For information on BA and MA programmes in Persian go to: (Links to) BA Persian Studies; BA Persian and Islamic Studies; MA Persian Studies
Reading:
- Arberry, A.J., ed., The Legacy of Persia, Oxford 1968.
- Arberry, A.J., ed., Classical Persian Literature, London 1994 (first edition 1958).
- The Cambridge History of Iran, 7 vols., Cambridge 1968-91.
- Keddie, N., Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran, London 1981.
- Milani, M., The Making of Iran's Islamic Revolution, 2nd edition, Boulder 1994.
- Morgan, D., Medieval Persia, 1040-1797, Harlow 1988.
- Mottahedeh, R., The Mantle of the Prophet, London 1986.
- Yarshater, E., ed., Persian Literature, New York 1988.
Turkish
Turkish belongs to the Altaic family of languages under the group Turkic Languages. Turkic languages are one of the most widely-spoken language families in the world, and one that is becoming increasingly important. Turkish is the official language of Turkey and Northern Cyprus. Azerbaijan in the Caucasus, Kazakstan, Kirgizstan, Turkmenistan, Tatarstan and Uzbekstan in Central Asia all use Turkic languages. Turkish is also the minority language in parts of the Balkans, the Crimea, north-western Iran, and Afghanistan, and of Xinjiang in north-western China. As a result of immigration from Turkey in recent decades, there are also large Turkish communities in western Europe (around three million), especially in Germany.
Turkish is a language with a long history. The earliest records of Turkish are the Orkhon inscriptions, discovered in Mongolia and dating from the 8th century AD. Turkish has used several scripts throughout history: Köktürk, Uyghur, Arabic and since 1928, Latin. It was the main administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire which, at its greatest extent in the 16th and 17th centuries, comprised most of the Middle East and south-east Europe.
There are clearly good reasons, both practical and academic, for studying Turkish:
- Turkey in particular has important commercial and political links with Great Britain and the EC and occupies a vital position in the Middle East and in Asia. After 1991, the Turkic peoples of the former Soviet Union and the Turkic Republics see Turkey as their link with the West.
- For political and commercial reasons Turkish is an important language of current affairs, and a fluent knowledge of it can increase a graduate's career prospects.
- The academic reasons for studying Turkish are equally good. Its unique structure and vocabulary and great variety of forms make it a fascinating study for linguists.
- The modern literature, especially of Turkey, is outstanding and easily accessible. Ottoman Turkish was the vehicle for one of the great literatures of Islam.
- Knowledge of Turkish also provides the key to research in a vast range of topics in the historical, social and political sciences.
The course at Manchester concentrates on modern Turkish and Turkey. The language courses are based on the four language skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening comprehension). The approach is mainly communicative, using authentic materials and with integrated culture-teaching. Several lectures in the first year, and a full course in the second, introduce students to the history and politics of modern Turkey.
From the second year, students are able to choose their courses from a range of linguistic, literary, historical and social topics. On the linguistic side, they may study (in addition to modern Turkish) subjects like Ottoman Turkish. Courses in modern literature are available from the second year.
These courses also dwell on the social and political background of the country. Ottoman literature is available from the third year onwards. On the historical side, two separate options are available which cover the history of the Ottoman Empire from the 14th to the 20th century. A survey course on the political, economic, cultural and social structure of modern Turkey is also available.
Students are expected to visit Turkey during a summer holiday and they will spend their third year of study in Turkey. Students going to Turkey for a whole year are required to follow courses in a Turkish University.
- Bainbridge, M., ed., The Turkic Peoples of the World, 1993.
- Balim-Harding, C., Turkey: World Bibliographical Series, 1999.
- Finkel, A & Sirman, N., eds., Turkish State, Turkish Society, 1991.
- Halman, T.S., Contemporary Turkish Literature, 1982.
- Polard, A., Teach Yourself Turkish, 2000.